“Like a ragtag bunch of lunatics, we crossed the icy Delaware barefoot and roared upon the Hessian encampment.”
— A record of the Battle of Trenton
The year 1776 had different meanings for people around the world at that time. In Asia, the Qing Emperor Qianlong enjoyed his forty-first reign, while Japan’s Tokugawa Shogunate lasted until the tenth general. In Europe, under King George III of England and King Louis XVI of France, Watt’s first mass-produced steam engine was ready to stir up the first industrial revolution.
Look to The Americas, where a revolution no less momentous than the American Revolution took place: the American Revolution. One of the smaller but most important battles discussed in this article, the Battle of Trenton, took place on Christmas Day, December 25, 1776. Just before the continental Army was about to be disbanded, Washington crossed the Delaware River with his troops and surprised the Hessian mercenaries’ camp, saving the dying American Revolution.
This is the simplest description of a general, an army, a nation bursting with an unyielding will in the face of desperate circumstances.
It’s a description that would have thrilled me 18 years ago when I read A biography of Washington. And today we understand that “blood”, though important in the course of history, hardly plays a role alone. To understand what went wrong and how the American revolution came back from the dead, one has to look at what happened in America in 1776.
For the independence-minded American insurgents, 1776 was a year of ups and downs. After the Tea party in Boston and the first shots fired in Lexington, the colonists finally realized that a break with the British Empire was inevitable. Thomas Paine published Common Sense, which greatly aroused the people of the thirteen States to fight for independence. On July 4, the Continental Congress duly adopted the Declaration of Independence, declaring America’s independence to the world.
Until now, The American people had good reason to be optimistic about the future of the revolutionary war. In addition to the early defeat of the expedition to Canada, the Continental Army, led by general Washington, the commander in chief, achieved a series of victories. One of the most inspiring was the victory of the Siege of Boston. Convinced that the siege was hopeless, the largest British army on American soil left the colony by ship. At this point, the Continental Congress began to be able to gradually achieve full control of the thirteen states.
For a time some people thought the war was over. In a letter of thanks to Washington, a member of the Massachusetts Congress wished him peace and contentment in his retirement. Harvard University also awarded Washington an honorary degree for his services.
But as Washington himself and other wise men feared, the war was far from over.
Only three months later, more than thirty thousand British soldiers and Hessian Mercenaries from Germany had crossed the sea and, under General William Howe, had fallen on New York and begun the battle of Long Island.
If the guns of Lexington were compared to the flames of the Revolutionary War, the battle of Long Island would be a bucket of cold water that would almost extinguish the uprising. Having to defend New York, an easy and difficult city, the Continental Army suffered a series of defeats in Brooklyn, Manhattan, and New Jersey. Tactically, bypassing Jamaica Hill road, the British outflanked the ten thousand Continental troops at Brooklyn. More than three thousand soldiers were captured at Fort Washington and Fort Lee. As Washington retreated with the rest of the army, soldiers sneaked out along the way. Arriving at Newark, New Jersey, Lieutenant James Monroe (later to be the fifth PRESIDENT of the United States) counted the men and found that there were only three thousand men left under Washington’s command. Washington had lost nearly 90 percent of his forces compared to before the battle on Long Island. To make matters worse, some of them, from New Jersey and Maryland, will leave the army on December 1st, and the rest will leave on December 31st, just a month after they have completed their duty. The only large force nearby that could provide assistance was the 4,000 troops under the command of the recalcitrant General Charles Lee, who had been slow to come.
If the darkest and most desperate period of the American Revolution is to be found, it begins at the Battle of Long Island in July 1776 and ends at the Battle of Trenton on December 25, 1776. In five months, the U.S. military has not won a single victory. General Washington’s command was therefore questioned and challenged by General Gates and General Lee. The fall of Philadelphia forced the congress, the central body of the time, to adjourn and retreat to Baltimore.
Politically, the British army began to declare amnesty in New York and New Jersey and other states, as long as the pledge of allegiance to the King again, to guarantee their personal and property security. Many of the uprising’s supporters, including Richard Stockton, who signed the Declaration of Independence, gave up and went back to their ways. At the same time, enlistment in the Continental Army became very difficult. Much to Washington’s personal concern, Philadelphia’s richest Allen family, having seen a series of defeats, abandoned its support for the Continental Army and turned to the British, which would be a bad example.
Logistically, the equipment of Washington’s men was appalling.
In Burlington, New Jersey, a resident who witnessed the march of the crushed Continental Army said: “If the war keeps going into the winter, the British will be scared to death at the sight of us. Because they’ve never fought the Naked Men.”
Washington himself lamented: “Many soldiers are now entirely naked, and many more are now too thin to fight.”
Diplomatically, America’s best hope is that France, Britain’s old enemy, will come to its rescue. It was clear, however, that the French, newly recovered from the seven years’ War, were only looking for something to add to it, not something to offer. So even if the Continental Congress had sent the diplomatically skilful Benjamin Franklin as ambassador, it could not have won a treaty of full support for the embattled General Washington amid a blizzard of American defeat. It was not until after the American victory at Saratoga that The French publicly recognized American independence and sent troops to fight directly against the British. From this we can be sure that in the winter of 1776, when General Washington’s army was losing ground and almost disappearing, the French had good reason to think that the war was over and that any aid would be of no use.
So to sum up, at Christmas 1776, the American revolution faced a dilemma: the main force was severely crippled and disbanded, the revolutionary will was weak at home, and foreign Allies were left alone. General Washington, on the other hand, was faced with the task of finding a way out against a foe ten times his own size in six days, with a defeated and unsupported army. Six days later there would be no such force, and General Washington would be a true commander in chief.
Faced with such a situation, the British, the French, and the Americans would all conclude that the American revolution had failed.
Unless, unless the Continental Army could win a decent victory, at least to prove to the American people, who wanted independence, that the army had not given up the fight; To prove to the world that America has not given up on revolution.
Looking beyond history itself, we can see that achieving American independence is not an impossible task. As long as the American mainland held out, the British supply lines halfway around the world would sooner or later be exhausted. The problem was that we could say, from God’s point of view, that we would win if we kept fighting, but people didn’t know that then. Because this is the time to test people’s souls, those who will give up will still give up, and those who are destined to leave a mark in history, will do their best to win their own war.
As we know, the American War of Independence was won in the end. In 1776, then, someone must have done something extraordinary. Here’s a look at who they were and what they did to save the dying Revolutionary War.
The first person to be mentioned, in the order of events, was one of my personal favorites, a continental general named Williams Alexander, known as Lord Stirling. If he had not fought in Brooklyn at the battle of Long Island, there would probably have been no more than three thousand men in Washington’s army, and the subsequent battles at Trenton and Princeton would not have been fought.
At Brooklyn, as mentioned earlier, the British flanked the Continental Army by skirting the Jamaica Pass. Lord Stirling, who was then in charge of the defence of Gowanusth Pass, only found himself surrounded after several attempts to repel the British advance. Seeing that the main force of Sullivan and Putnam was in retreat, Lord Stirling, with more than 260 Maryland and Delaware warriors, launched six deadly charges against two thousand British troops in front of The House of Cotwillow. This desperate struggle allowed the main force to withdraw, and only ten of the “Four Hundred Men of Maryland” survived. General Washington himself, sitting in the rear of Brooklyn Heights, saw this and cried, “My God! How many brave companions must I lose today!” Lord Stirling himself led the charge, but did not die. Having exhausted his troops, he refused to surrender, noble and chivalric, and fought his way through the encirclement — surrendering to the British mercenaries, the Hessians of Germany. And his choice to “keep this useful body” has not been in vain, as we shall see the name Lord Stirling used in a scene worthy of an article.
The second character who made the decisive contribution was the famous writer mentioned earlier, Thomas Paine. This man was always in doubt as to whether he had been sent by God to support the American Revolution spiritually. He was always able to write the most critical books to inspire people when it was most necessary. As the Fire of the American Revolution began to burn, he wrote Common Sense, a poignant critique of the nature of British self-serving rule in America and the necessity and feasibility of independence. The book sold nearly half a million copies in colonies with a population of just two and a half million, and inspired millions of Americans to join the revolution. Since then he has been an aide in Washington’s army and a war correspondent. During those months when the Continental Army was in dire straits, he had been in action, observing the whole army and the revolutionary situation. Even in such dire circumstances, Paine himself, with his keen sense of God’s perspective, had always judged that the revolution would succeed. But what worries him is that ordinary people and soldiers are discouraged by the defeat. So when he saw that the number of troops was dwindling and popular support was waning, he decided to take up his pen and inspire the nation once more. He began to write between marches. While exhausted soldiers slept around him, he wrote fast by the fire in his makeshift camp. When Penn finally arrived in Philadelphia, The final draft of The pamphlet was finished, and he called it The American Crisis, The famous Crisis. In the first sentence of the book he writes: “This is a time to test the soul. Some patriots who could only fight in the warm sunshine would be afraid to serve their country in such a crisis. But the patriots who stepped forward at this time deserve the respect and affection of all men and women across this nation.” Not only does he inspire people with passionate words, but he also gives a timely analysis of the causes of the current crisis and possible solutions. He raised the importance of establishing a standing army, which promoted the reform of the Continental Army and thus played an important role in saving the revolution.
In the chaos of Philadelphia, it took Paine ten days to find a place to print the booklet. To make it as useful as possible, Paine insisted on selling it for only twopence, which was exactly the cost of printing, and the right to make copies at will was granted to printers everywhere. It was December 19, six days before Christmas to save the American Revolution. The pamphlet was circulated on every possible paper, and its influence far exceeded expectations. The soldiers, according to the record, read the book eagerly in every place, and were so inspired that they used the first words of the book as marching orders and Shouting slogans in battle. The command of the Continental Army issued the book to the lower ranks, along with written orders to command the battle. The reaction from the citizens of the states was also very strong. Many people began to support the revolution again. Some soldiers who had given up fighting returned to the army. It is safe to say that without this book, Washington would not have had such a highly motivated army to complete the battle of Trenton. Paine continued to write The Crisis after the battle of Trenton. Sixteen volumes of the series were written, and they were widely read not only in the United States, but also with American ambassadors to European courts, and among royalty and nobility. Between 1776 and 1783, almost the whole world waited for Paine’s update and for his pamphlet to read about the course of the American revolution and the popular mood.
The third person who “contributes” is more ridiculous. Because he probably wouldn’t want to save the American Revolution in such a way. He was General Charles Lee. As I have said, when Washington lost New Jersey, he was stationed elsewhere with a force of four thousand. One of the few experienced professional soldiers in the Continental Army, he was a strong contender for the command of General Washington. He was of a very bad character, and he was publicly contemptuous of Washington many times. So while Washington half begged and half commanded him to join him, he lingered, refused to come to his aid, and even attempted to attack Princeton himself. From today’s point of view, his intentions may well be sinister. For if Washington were captured or killed, the Continental Army would probably be under his command. But all this became meaningless on December 13th. As Lee escaped lightly and ran with his bodyguards to rest a few miles from the larger troops, he met and was captured by a British dragoons. Washington was furious, but it was a good thing for him, because after Lee’s capture, Sullivan finally joined Lee with two thousand men who belonged to Him. It happened on December 20th, just five days before Christmas. At last Washington had enough men to carry out the plan he wanted.
So Lee’s greatest contribution to saving the American Revolution was to hand himself over to the British. Funnily enough, after taking Lee prisoner, The British governor of The Hague, Joseph York, who knew him well, suggested that he should be returned to the Americans because he was “the worst present for any army”. (He was the worst present which could be made to any Army.) For an experienced and capable general to be anything like this, He deserves sympathy. (More details about General Lee may come at the end of the article.)
The fourth outstanding contribution comes from the material sector. The main contributors were Governor Patrick Henry of Virginia, Governor Jonathan Tremb of Connecticut, and the U.S. Navy. It was clear that Washington’s Army of naked Men would collapse in a matter of days if they were not covered with blankets as winter approached. So Washington appealed to the states to help with the necessary supplies. The response has been most positive in Washington’s home state of Virginia. The legislature quickly passed an emergency resolution asking the governor to help collect the items. Governor Patrick Henry immediately sent a letter to each of his security forces, asking them to begin soliciting supplies from the civilian population. One of the letters was addressed to his political opponent, Thomas Jefferson. In it he humbly begged Jefferson to accept his proposed purchase of goods for the sake of the men at the front. And Jefferson, not to be outdone, provided the Continental Army with much more than it needed. Jonathan Trenb, the governor of Connecticut, has personally paid for a lot of supplies to get to the front. His son, Joseph Trenb, served as a quartermaster in the Washington Army and contributed greatly to the establishment of the supply system. Meanwhile, with much of the resources needed for the army still coming from abroad, the Navy sailing ship Independence, through the British blockade, brought 856 blankets to the continental army, shivering in the cold, on December 20th; On December 23rd the Andelia delivered 463 blankets and 314 dozen assorted socks after a gruelling naval battle. If anyone feels confused about the importance of these supplies, just keep in mind the fact that even after receiving such assistance, Washington’s troops are still in tatters, some of them barefoot. But these materials helped them live to the next battle and saved the revolution.
The next contribution came from the Continental Congress. As the central agency at the time, they finally figured out that the continental Army had nothing to gain from a messy command structure at this critical time of crisis. So instead of worrying about Whether Washington would become a dictator with the army, they gave him control of all branches of the Continental Army, including strategic planning and logistics management. In return, Washington used those powers carefully and explained its military decisions in detail to Congress.
The last person to talk about is, of course, General Washington.
As commander in chief, General Washington’s greatest credit was not for a single success, but for a broader triumph: he ensured that his troops did not collapse and that he was not overwhelmed by the pressure until he found the right fighter. Although the art of war says that “one should be invincible first and wait for the enemy to win”, it is not easy to maintain such an armed presence in such a hostile environment. From the battle of Long Island on, his best practice in the art of war was to retreat, or turn forward. Neither the breathtaking turn from Brooklyn to Manhattan, nor the frantic turn from Fort Lee to New Jersey, had he allowed his inner circle to break up too much. When some of the veterans’ terms expired, he personally stepped forward and used his personal influence and wealth to try to keep them. Although many did leave, those who remained were clearly infected by him. When the general of the army would not give up the struggle, and would make a final effort, it was natural that these men, who had so much respect for him, should not leave the general alone. In addition, he made extensive preparations for the planned Jedi comeback, most effectively building his artillery corps. Lieutenant Henry Knox, whom he trusted, made a very positive change in the artillery corps. He assigned batteries to each infantry brigade and trained a battery of unequipped artillery-men so that they could immediately cover the enemy’s head with artillery. Both played a huge role. Muskets frequently failed in the wet or blustery weather that followed the battles of Trenton and Princeton, while the cannon, protected by its bolt and ignition cover, showed remarkable power. At The battle of Trenton, these trained artillerymen did capture two Hessian heavy guns and used them to produce a great deal of firepower against the Hessian army.
So far we can see that many people, in their own unique way, are working to save the Dying American Revolution. Unlike the battle of Trenton, as many people think, it was not just a tactical victory over the Hessian army that Washington himself risked. It was because of the efforts of all before him that General Washington was given the basic conditions to fight a counterattack that would shock the British, to fight a turnaround that would let the world know that The United States was still fighting.
So on December 25, the Continental Army moved on to Trenton. The message of this battle is “Victory or Death” — the slogan for a battle that must be won and not lost.
On the night of December 25, Washington crossed the river with 2,400 men north of Trenton, 700 militiamen in New Jersey crossed the river from Trenton under General James Iyron, and 1,500 men from Philadelphia under Colonel Cavallada to prevent the British from coming to burlington. Only Washington and 2,400 men managed to cross the Delaware river by boat, because the ice floes on the river blocked the lower reaches.
We do not know the detailed scene of the Crossing at that time. Even the famous oil painting Washington Crossing exhibited by The Metropolitan Museum is full of the painter’s imagination and artistic processing. I can only quote again the entry at the beginning of the article: “We crossed the ice-covered Delaware River barefoot like ragged lunatics, roaring and attacking the hessian encampment.” These soldiers, whom we have referred to in the preceding paragraph as the remnants, the demoralized troops and the naked Men, yet it was they who overcame all difficulties in the cold, and carried out the last part of all their efforts: crossing the river and fighting. Every one of them knows that if they don’t win, this will be their last battle.” The fate of the American Revolution rests in the hands of each of them. It was because of their desperation that the flame of the American Revolution was rekindled and the War of Independence won.
This article will not give a detailed description of the battle itself, which began at Trenton on 26 December. It must be said that this is an uphill battle.
Rumors abound that the Hessian surprise attack by the Continental Army went smoothly because of the Hessian party on Christmas Eve and the drunkenness. This is not the case. Just a few days before Christmas, The Hessian commander, Lal, had received word from many sources that the Continental army was about to attack. The Hessian outpost was attacked several times on the 25th by New Jersey militiamen, and Rahl had raised the guard to a very tight level. So within minutes of the Continental army shelling Trenton, the Hessian army was quickly assembled and ready for battle.
The continental army fought bravely, but the final result of the battle was amazing. 896 Hessian soldiers stationed at Trenton were captured, 22 killed, and at least 83 wounded. Hessian commander Lal was also killed in action. Not a single continental Army man was killed and only a few were wounded, including James Monroe, who would become the fifth president of the United States. But there were non-combat casualties, with many soldiers dying from hypothermia caused by hunger and cold.
It is also worth noting that Lord Stirling, who had broken out of the British siege to surrender to the Hessians, had already returned to The command of General Washington by exchange of prisoners. He also took part in the battle of Trenton and still led the charge bravely. After the war, he accepted the hessian surrender on behalf of the Continental army. It is only true that a gentleman takes revenge ten years later.
Though small in scale, the significance of the battle was striking.
At home, many Americans saw this victory as a provident act, a victory that god, in the hands of the Continental Army, had won for the American people. In parts of Virginia, where the continental Army had sent to recruit not a single man, after the battle of Trenton men came in droves to sign up. A British businessman notes: “The Americans have been released from the panic. It will be very difficult to put them in that position again.”
When the news reached Europe, the British government was in an uproar. The British generals, under parliamentary questioning, passed the buck to each other. But they all began to realize that Americans were awakened again, that the war would not be as simple as they had expected, and that even eventual defeat was possible. Although the French were still not determined to stand openly with the Americans, some infected French began to help the Americans spontaneously. The most famous of these was the Marquis de Lafayette, who in 1777 sold his possessions, bought a warship and a great deal of goods, and went to the United States to join the revolution. His name has been used to name many city streets, such as Lafayette Street in New York.
A few years later, British general Cornwallis surrendered at Yorktown with more than 7,000 British troops. The war of Independence would end with an American victory. He toasted Washington at dinner: “When your excellency’s great achievements in this long war are in the past, your excellency’s deeds on the banks of the Delaware River will bring you a more glorious reputation than that of Chesapeake Bay today.” I think the credit belongs not only to General Washington himself, but also to all those who fought to save the Revolutionary War during the crisis of 1776. It was a soul-testing moment, and they passed that test, and we have the America that we have today.
Main References:
Fischer, David Hackett(2006). Washington’s Crossing. Oxford University Press. ISBN0-19-517034-2.
Allison, Robert J., The American Revolution: A Concise History, New York: Oxford University Press,2011, ISBN978-0-19-531295-9
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